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Figure 2. Perioperative ctDNA-MRD workflow in resectable NSCLC and AI/ML failure modes across the pipeline. The central curve depicts the perioperative ctDNA-MRD workflow, from clinical context and sampling to MRD assay, AI modeling, and clinical decision-making. The color-coded panels map MRD-intrinsic constraints (MRD limitations, CH confounding) and AI/ML-specific failure modes (window shift, assay effect, domain shift, risk-action gap) to each pipeline layer. Created in BioRender. Chen, Y. (2026) https://BioRender.com/tvny9l2. MRD: Minimal residual disease; ctDNA: circulating tumor DNA; VAF: variant allele fraction; LOD: limit of detection; CH: clonal hematopoiesis; AI: artificial intelligence; ML: machine learning; PPV: positive predictive value; NPV: negative predictive value.